Top 50 Definitions Every Researcher Should Know
On a sunny morning in May, William’s co-worker asks him to read a white paper on a widely used commercial product.
Charlotte: “Hey William, did you hear about this new product that efficiently sanitizes household objects? Well, the manufacturer has made some unscientific claims. You should check out the white paper on the product.”
William: “Alright. But Charlotte, what exactly is a white paper and where can I find it?
Clearly, William has no idea what a “white paper” constitutes. In today’s blog, I will explain the meanings of some of the most common words and phrases (“jargon”) used by researchers worldwide. Wherever necessary, I have also included easy-to-understand real-world examples. Here’s the list in alphabetical order:
Authorship Dispute: A disagreement between researchers on who needs to be included as an author and/or the order that needs to be maintained while conferring manuscript authorship.
Example: While working as a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Dr. Murray contributes significantly to a research project by designing a prosthetic arm. However, his postdoctoral supervisor fails to include his name in the list of manuscript authors, thus causing an authorship dispute.
Bias: Intentional or subconscious deviation from the truth.
Example: Dr. Amelia is creating a training program for an artificial intelligence algorithm. However, she uses a database that only represents a group of people from a certain geography. Eventually, the algorithm starts providing answers that hold good only for people from that geography, thus introducing bias in the presented results.
Case Study: A real-world analysis of any subject, event, individual, organization, etc., with practical implications.
Example: Yale School of Management’s famous study on the rise of “Netflix.”
Causality: The relationship between an identified cause and its corresponding effect (e.g., applying heat to a cube of ice causes it to melt). However, it is important to understand that correlation does not always prove causation. Let me explain with the example below.
Example: A study showing that 7 out of 10 CEOs prefer eating peeled almonds on weekends concludes that adopting this practice can improve your odds of becoming a CEO. This is clearly an absurd conclusion (and a humorous example of how correlation does not necessarily imply causation).
Cohort: A group of individuals who share certain characteristics (e.g., patients receiving the same drug during a clinical trial or managers registering for a week-long training course with similar modules.)
Conflicts of Interest: These occur when someone’s personal interests (e.g., revenue generation, product sales, matrimony, etc.) clash with their duties as a professional.
Example: Jacob is about to publish a research paper on the benefits of using an artificial intelligence-based health app developed by him. Clearly, Jacob may derive commercial benefits from his research article. Besides, he may subconsciously introduce bias while interpreting his data. In the worst-case scenario, Jacob may even try to fabricate or falsify data to present a ‘good’ picture of the aforementioned health app.
Control: Constant experimental condition(s) that attempt(s) to minimize or eliminate the effect of all other variables except for the independent variable.
Example: An MBA intern decides to test the effectiveness of a new digital marketing strategy. During the experiment, he ensures that the same advertisement budget gets allocated across all test groups. Here, the advertisement budget is kept constant across all test groups to ensure that any observed changes in sales are not attributable to varying advertising budgets.
Correlation: A statistical measure used for analyzing the association between two or more variables. However, it is important to note that correlation does not necessarily imply causation (please see the definition of causality).
Creative Commons License: A legal framework that allows creators to grant specific usage rights to the public while retaining certain other rights.
Example: The terms of the CC BY-NC-ND license allow interested stakeholders to copy and distribute original works in any medium or format without any modification. Proper attribution (citation) is required, and the work cannot be used commercially.
Data Fabrication/Falsification: Data fabrication involves the creation of false data that were not obtained through legitimate research. Data falsification, on the other hand, refers to the unethical manipulation of legitimate data, resulting in unscientific outcomes.
Data Sharing: The scientific practice of making experimental data available to all interested stakeholders. Data sharing can be done via large repositories (e.g., Zenodo), collaborative platforms, etc.
Desk Rejection: The instant rejection of a manuscript submitted to a journal for peer review, based on criteria such non-compliance with author guidelines, incomprehensible language, poor formatting, etc. Such manuscripts are not sent out for peer review and are usually rejected by the journal staff within days of receipt.
Digital Object Identifier (DOI): A unique link that points towards the permanent online location of a digital item (research article, case study, review, book, etc.). It comprises a string of alphabets, numbers, and symbols and is preferred by various citation styles (e.g., APA and NLM).
Example: https://doi.org/10.7759/s44404-024-01904-z
Double-Blind Peer Review: In the world of publishing, it refers to the scientifically rigorous evaluation of a submitted manuscript (research article, case study, rapid communication, etc.). During such evaluation, the identities of the evaluator(s) and the manuscript author(s) remain concealed from each other.
Gantt Chart: A bar chart commonly used as a tool to monitor the progress of a project. It displays activity milestones on a timeline, indicating their start dates, end dates, and durations.
Graphical Abstract: In the world of publishing, it is the visual representation of the most significant aspects of a research study, review, etc. Most researchers use versatile design platforms such as Canva for their graphical abstract requirements.
Hirsch Index (H-index): A scholarly metric commonly used to assess a researcher’s productivity and citation record. It is defined as the highest “h” such that a researcher with “h” publications has at least “h” citations. However, this metric has several shortcomings. For instance, even negative citations (or self-citations) can increase a researcher’s h-index, partially defeating its purpose as a scholarly metric.
Example: If Dr. Resnick has an h-index of 30, she has at least 30 publications, each of which has earned at least 30 citations.
Hypothesis: An intelligent but temporary assumption that needs to be validated through systematic research.
Example: Laughing more than ten times a day significantly boosts mental health.
Informed Consent: Legal permission ethically sought from individuals who volunteer to participate in various studies after knowing the associated benefits, risks, and other relevant details.
Institutional Review Board: A group of experts and lay members appointed to oversee studies involving human subjects to ensure compliance with recognized ethical standards. In some cases, Institutional Review Boards also oversee studies involving animals.
Intellectual Property Rights: Legal protections that grant owners of various creations (authors, innovators, designers, etc.), the exclusive ability to control and profit from their original works.
Example: Authors of scientific manuscripts submitted to Cureus Journals own the copyrights to their published articles. However, they can grant certain rights to interested stakeholders, as discussed in the example listed under the definition of the Creative Commons License.
Interdisciplinary Research: A collaborative approach involving the integration of methods and techniques from various disciplines to address a common problem. Collaborators share expertise across fields and often cross disciplinary boundaries to investigate the problem comprehensively.
Meta-Analysis: A method of systematically reviewing and combining the results of multiple original research studies, both qualitative and quantitative, to get a more generalizable estimate of the overall effect on a particular topic.
Multidisciplinary Research: A collaborative approach involving the use of methods and techniques from different disciplines to address a common problem. Unlike interdisciplinary research, collaborators work within their respective disciplines, maintaining their boundaries while contributing to the overall investigation.
Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA): A legally binding contract that restricts signatory parties from disclosing confidential information to unauthorized third parties, while allowing disclosure to all signatory parties as per the agreed terms.
Null Hypothesis: The default hypothesis in research suggesting that there is no significant relationship between variables, no significant effect of one variable on another, or no significant difference between groups under investigation.
Open Access (OA): In the world of publishing, OA refers to the free availability of published works (research articles, reviews, case studies, etc.) to anyone with an internet connection.
Outlier: A data point that significantly deviates from the rest of the data in a data set.
Patent Infringement: The unauthorized exploitation of a patented invention that violates the patent holder's exclusive rights within a specific territory and time frame.
Example: An engineering firm obtains a U.S. patent protecting their flagship product for a period of 20 years in the United States. A rival firm copies the product and begins selling it in California without permission. The patent holder sues the rival firm for patent infringement, seeking damages worth $20 million.
Paywalled Journal: A publication that requires a subscription or one-time payment to access its content, thus restricting free availability. This is the exact opposite of an OA journal.
Plagiarism: The unethical act of using someone else's work without proper citation or permission and presenting it as one's own.
Predatory Journal: A publication that generates revenue via subscription or open access without providing legitimate editorial and/or peer-review services. Predatory journals do a significant disservice to society and harm the academic community.
Preprint Server: An online platform where researchers can share their manuscripts prior to formal peer review and publication, allowing for early dissemination and feedback.
Rebuttal: A formal response, in the form of an argument, presented to counter concerns raised during peer review. Although rare, rebuttals can also be drafted to counter claims made during public discourses.
Example: A newspaper makes a tall claim based on an article posted to a preprint server. The article’s corresponding author drafts a rebuttal stating that the claim is exaggerated, that the article may require revision after peer review, and that such revisions sometimes alter the associated conclusions.
Reference Management: The process of systematically identifying and documenting published works, nowadays facilitated by various reference management tools such as Mendeley, Endnote, and Zotero.
Reproducibility: The ability to achieve consistent results using the same methodology, data, and conditions as the original study. By definition, published research must always be reproducible when conducted as prescribed in the original study.
Research Ethics/Integrity: A set of principles or guidelines for the responsible conduct of research (and responsible publishing). Whereas research integrity primarily focuses on ensuring good practices in the execution of research, ethics mostly focus on reducing harm to humans, animals, and endangered species involved in the research process.
Retraction: The formal withdrawal of a published paper from the scientific record because of significant errors, misconduct, or other issues that adversely affect the published paper.
Salami Slicing: The unethical practice of dividing a single significant piece of research into smaller, less impactful publications to artificially inflate one's publication record.
Science Communication: The practice of conveying scientific ideas, findings, or concepts to non-expert audiences in an engaging and accessible manner.
Scientific Editing: The process of refining and enhancing scientific manuscripts for clarity, accuracy, and adherence to publication standards, often performed by specialists or professional editors.
Scientific Misconduct: Any unethical or inappropriate behavior in research, including fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, or other practices that deviate from accepted standards.
Self-Citation: The practice of citing one’s own previously published work in a new publication, which can be appropriate when relevant but problematic if overused.
Single-Blind Peer Review: Very similar to a double-blind peer review, except that the identity of only one of the stakeholders (usually the manuscript author) is concealed from the other.
Statistical Significance: A measure indicating the likelihood that a result or relationship observed in a study is not due to random chance, commonly assessed using a p-value threshold (e.g., p < 0.05).
Structured Abstract: A concise summary of a study presented in a standardized format with labeled sections, such as Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions.
Style Guide: A set of rules and conventions for writing, formatting, and referencing, used to ensure consistency and clarity in publications.
Technology Transfer: The process of transferring knowledge, technologies, or innovations developed in research settings to commercial or public applications.
Trademark: A legally registered symbol, word, phrase, or design that identifies and distinguishes the goods or services of one entity from others.
White Paper: A comprehensive document that provides authoritative information, analysis, or proposals on a specific topic, often used to advocate for solutions or policies.
I hope you enjoyed going through this list. Make sure you share this blog with your colleagues today. Before you jump to our next blog, please attempt the quiz below.
Quiz for the Curious
An open access journal instantly rejects a submitted manuscript upon realizing that it is not compliant with the stipulated author guidelines. This action is referred to as
(A) Salami slicing
(B) Infringement
(C) Desk rejection
(D) Retraction
(E) Technology transfer
Answer: (C)